Templates for controlling synthesis of nanoparticles into discrete assemblies

ABSTRACT

An approach to synthesizing and assembling nanoparticles into discrete, size-tunable, pre-designed architectures is realized in a single synthetic/process step.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/211,668, filed Sep. 16, 2008, which claims the benefit to priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/981,137, filed Oct. 19, 2007, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Controlling the growth and assembly of nanoparticles is one of the most significant problems facing nanoscience. This is so in part because the size- and shape-dependent physicochemical and optoelectronic properties of metal and semiconductor nanoparticles are important factors in catalysis, biosensing, recording media, and optical devices.

Many templates, such as DNA, peptides, polymers or surfactants, dyes, and multidentate thioethers, have been used to control the growth and assembly of nanoparticles. These templates have received attention because they adsorb on the particle surface, preventing particle aggregation, and they change the surface properties of the resulting nanostructures, allowing for careful manipulation and assembly of the nanoparticles.

These current methods used to assemble nanoparticles, however, suffer from one or more of the following shortcomings: (A) they offer no control over the shape and/or the size of the nanoparticle assembly; (B) they require multiple time-consuming synthetic steps; and (C) they are extremely low-yielding.

Assembling nanoparticles into hierarchical materials therefore remains a considerable challenge. Simple processes are needed that can be employed to assemble nanoparticles into pre-designed functional materials. Without such processes, rational incorporation of nanoparticles into new materials remains largely infeasible.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Accordingly, the present invention provides a novel strategy for controlling the formation and assembly of discrete gold nanoparticles. This strategy involves three stages: (1) providing peptide conjugates of a biomineralization peptide with a pendant organic group that conveys a self-assembly property to the conjugate; and then effecting (2) self-assembly of the peptide conjugates and (3) nucleation of nanoparticles by the conjugate assemblies. The latter two stages are accomplished concurrently; that is, in a “one pot” reaction.

In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, therefore, a conjugate molecule is provided that comprises a biomineralization peptide attached chemically at its N-terminus to a self-associating moiety. An illustrative self-associating moiety in this regard is a linear aliphatic carbon chain, and the biomineralization peptide, in one embodiment of the invention, comprises the amino acid sequence AYSSGAPPMPPF (SEQ ID NO: 1).

According to another of its aspect, the present invention provides a plurality of conjugate molecules as described above, which plurality, when contacted with a mineralization agent, forms assemblies that template nucleation of nanoparticles comprised of a metal or semiconductor element from the mineralization agent. By the same token, the invention relates to a method for producing discrete assemblies of nanoparticles, comprising (a) providing such a plurality of conjugate molecules and then (b) contacting the plurality with a mineralization agent under conditions such that, in a single reaction mixture, self-assembly of the peptide conjugates occurs and nucleation of nanoparticles is effected by the conjugate assemblies.

Pursuant to the invention, assemblies of nanoparticles can be designed rationally and readily synthesized. In particular, the invention allows one to control the size and shape of such assemblies at will, and the entire synthetic process occurs in a single, high-yielding step.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-1C are a schematic representation of how discrete assemblies of gold nanoparticles can be produced in accordance with the invention. FIG. 1A discloses SEQ ID NO: 1.

FIGS. 2A-2E depict data, obtained via transmission electron microscopy or tapping-mode atomic force microscopy, that illuminate C₁₂-PEP_(Au) fiber characterization and a model of assembly, respectively. TEM images revealed that C₁₂-PEP_(Au) amphiphiles assemble into uniform fibers (width=6.1±0.6 nm; based on 60 counts) in HEPES buffer solutions (A). These fibers had twisted-ribbon morphologies, as evidenced by tapping-mode AFM height images (B,C). The twisted nanoribbons had a regular pitch of 84.1±4.2 nm, as determined by AFM height images (based on 60 counts) (D). C₁₂-PEP_(Au) units assembled into left-handed twisted nanoribbons (E).

FIGS. 3A-3E present pictorial and graphical illustration of transmission electron microscopic characterization of gold nanoparticle double-helices manufactured according to the invention. Structurally regular gold nanoparticle double-helices form when a solution of chloroauric acid was added to HEPES buffer solutions containing C₁₂-PEP_(Au), as evidenced by TEM analysis (A-D). The sizes of the gold nanoparticles are uniform 8.2±1.0 nm; based on 150 counts) (E).

FIGS. 4A-4C provide electron tomography data (A,B) and schematic depiction of the formation of gold nanoparticle double-helices manufactured according to the invention (C). The structure of a gold nanoparticle double-helix was confirmed using electron tomography. X-Y computational slices (a, I-VIII) of the 3-D tomographic volume containing the double-helical gold nanoparticle assembly and a 3-D surface rendering of the tomographic volume (B) both revealed the left-handed nature of the helices. Left-handed gold nanoparticle double-helices were synthesized and assembled directly in a reaction containing HEPES buffer solutions of chloroauric acid and C₁₂-PEP_(Au) (C).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

In biological systems, peptides often control the nucleation and assembly of inorganic species. Several studies have demonstrated that so-called “biomineralization peptides” can be used to bind inorganic surfaces selectively and to template the growth and nucleation of metallic nanoparticles under mild synthetic conditions. See, e.g., Naik et al., Nature Materials 1: 169-72 (2002); Whaley et al., Nature 405: 665-68 (2000); Brown, Nature Biotechnol. 15: 269-72 (1997). Additionally, it has been shown that peptides can be conjugated to simple organic molecules. Depending on the identity of the organic molecule, such conjugates can self-assemble to form nanofibers, nanotubules, nanovesicles, and the like. For instance, see Hartgerink et al., Science, 23: 1684 (2001); Jun et al., Soft Matter 2: 177 (2006); Zhao & Zhang, Chem. Soc. Rev. 35: 1105 (2006); Gazit, Chem. Soc. Rev. 36: 1263 (2007).

Exploiting the aforementioned self-assembly function, the present invention provides an approach, realized in a single synthetic/process step, for synthesizing and assembling nanoparticles into discrete, size-tunable, pre-designed architectures. Pursuant to this approach, a peptide conjugate is provided that comprises a biomineralization peptide chemically attached to a self-associating moiety. A plurality of such peptide conjugates d are contacted with a mineralization agent, which is typically the salt of a metal or semiconductor element, under conditions such that, in a single reaction mixture, the peptide conjugates form an assembly and the assembly nucleates nanoparticles comprised of the metal or semiconductor from the mineralization agent.

By way of example, as discussed in greater detail below, hydrophobic, linear aliphatic carbon chains, such as C10, C11, C12, C16, or C20, can be chemically attached to the N-terminus of a hydrophilic biomineralization peptide, amino acid sequence AYSSGAPPMPPF (SEQ ID NO: 1), which nucleates the formation of gold nanoparticles specifically. See Slocik et al., Small 1: 1048-52 (2005). The resultant amphiphilic peptide conjugate self-assembles into micelles in aqueous solution, and this micelle assembly serves both (i) to nucleate discrete gold nanoparticles and (ii) to organize the discrete gold nanoparticles spontaneously into well-defined clusters of nanoparticles (see FIG. 1).

Thus illustrated, the invention exploits the above-described amphiphilic peptides to nucleate discrete nanoparticles and, at the same time, to control their assembly into discrete clusters or infinite chains of nanoparticles. Varying the length of the aliphatic carbon chain allows for systematic adjustment of both the size of such nanoparticle clusters, typically in the range of about 30 to about 100 nm, and the shape of the clusters, either spherical or tubular.

Pursuant to this approach, the present invention more generally provides for the fabrication of nanoparticles by means of biomineralization peptides that have been engineered to nucleate specifically the formation of nanoparticles of a prescribed metallic constituency. For example, when the aforementioned amphiphilic peptide conjugate is incubated in a buffer solution containing gold salts, as further discussed below, the peptide component reduces the Au(III) salts to Au(0), thereby promoting the formation of discrete gold nanoparticles.

Chemically attaching hydrophobic organic groups, e.g., C10, C11, C12, C16, or C20 linear aliphatic carbon chains, to the N-terminus of the peptide allows for controlling the assembly of the amphiphilic peptide complex in aqueous solutions. That is, the amphiphilic peptide conjugate assembles in aqueous solution into micelles, the size and shape of which can be controlled, pursuant to the invention, by varying the length of the aliphatic carbon “tether” attached to the peptide terminus. Some tethers also are expected to result in the formation tubular micelles. See Vauthey et al., Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. USA 99: 5355 (2002); Shimizu et al., Chem. Rev. 105: 1401 (2005).

In any event, the peptide amphiphile micelles have hydrophobic cores (aliphatic carbon chains) and hydrophilic surfaces (peptides). The resultant spherical or tubular assemblies therefore have biomineralization peptides on their surfaces. Consequently, exposing these assemblies to solutions of selected metal salt precursors results in the nucleation of nanoparticles on the surface of the assembly. In this way, the peptide amphiphile assemblies afford control of both the growth and the assembly of nanoparticles.

The gold-reducing peptide described above is emblematic of the expanding class of biomineralization peptides, any one or more of which can be used in the present invention. Thus, bacterial and phage display technologies, see respectively Brown (1997) and Whaley et al. (2000), supra, are available for production of substrate-specific peptides that are suitable biomineralization agents for the directed nucleation that is an important aspect of the present invention. Such biomineralization peptides have been developed for producing not only of gold nanoparticles, as described above, but also of iron oxide, silica, silver, zinc sulfide, cadmium sulfide, and cobalt nanoparticles. For example, see Naik et al. (2004), supra, and Mao et al., Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. USA 100: 6946-51 (2003). Table 1 enumerates exemplary peptide sequences that exhibit affinity for various inorganics.

TABLE 1 Examples of peptide sequences exhibiting affinity for various inorganics Materials Sequences Size pI^(a) MW^(b) Charge^(c) Display^(Ref) Au MHGKTQATSGTIQS 14 8.52 1446.60 +1 CSD^(1,2) (SEQ ID NO: 2) SKTSLGQSGASLQGSEKLTNG 21 8.31 2050.21 +1 (SEQ ID NO: 3) QATSEKLVRGMEGASLHPAKT 21 8.60 2211.52 +1 (SEQ ID NO: 4) Pt DRTSTWR  7 9.60 920.98 +1 PD^(d) (SEQ ID NO: 5) QSVTSTK  7 8.75 749.82 +1 (SEQ ID NO: 6) SSSHLNK  7 8.49 771.33 +1 (SEQ ID NO: 7) Pd SVTQNKY  7 8.31 838.92 +1 PD^(d) (SEQ ID NO: 8) SPHPGPY  7 6.46 753.81  0 (SEQ ID NO: 9) HAPTPML  7 6.74 765.93  0 (SEQ ID NO: 10) Ag AYSSGAPPMPPF^(e) 12 5.57 1221.39  0 PD³ (SEQ ID NO: 11) NPSSLFRYLPSD^(e) 12 6.09 1395.53  0 (SEQ ID NO: 12) SLATQPPRTPPV^(e) 12 9.47 1263.46 +1 (SEQ ID NO: 13) SiO₂ MSPHPHPRHHHT^(e) 12 9.59 1470.63 +1 PD⁴ (SEQ ID NO: 14) RGRRRRLSCRRL^(e) 12 12.30 1541.89 +6 (SEQ ID NO: 15) KPSHHHHHTGAN 12 8.78 1359.43 +1 (SEQ ID NO: 16) Zeolites VKTQATSREEPPRLPSKHRPG 21 10.90 2371.68 +3 CSD⁵ (SEQ ID NO: 17) MDHGKYRQKQATPG 14 9.70 1616.82 +2 (SEQ ID NO: 18) ZnO NTRMTARQHRSANHKSTQRA^(e) 20 12.48 2351.59 +4 CSD⁶ (SEQ ID NO: 19) YDSRSMRPH  0 8.75 1148.26 +1 (SEQ ID NO: 20) CaCO₃ HTQNMRMYEPWF 12 6.75 1639.87  0 PD⁷ (SEQ ID NO: 21) DVFSSFNLKHMR 12 8.75 1480.70 +1 (SEQ ID NO: 22) Cr₂O₃ VVRPKAATN  9 11.00 955.13 +2 CSD⁵ (SEQ ID NO: 23) RIRHRLVGQ  9 12.30 1134.35 +3 (SEQ ID NO: 24) Fe₂O₃ RRTVHKKVN^(e)  9 12.01 1146.32 +3 CSD⁸ (SEQ ID NO: 25) GaAs AQNPSDNNTHTH 12 5.97 1335.31  0 PD⁹ (SEQ ID NO: 26) RLELAIPLQGSG 12 6.00 1253.46  0 (SEQ ID NO: 27) TPPRPIQYNHTS 12 8.44 1410.55 +1 (SEQ ID NO: 28) ZnS NNPMHQN^(e)  7 6.74 853.91  0 PD¹⁰ (SEQ ID NO: 29) ^(a)Isoelectric points and ^(b)Molecular masses of peptides calculated using Compute pI/Mw tool (http: //us.expasy.org/tools/pi_tool.html). ^(c)Calculated by subtracting the number of basic residues (R and K) from the number acidic residues (D and E). ^(d)Unpublished results by Sarikaya et al., Nature Materials 2: 577-85 (2003). ^(e)Most frequently observed sequences. ¹Brown, Nature Biotechnol. 15: 269-72 (1997). ²Brown et al., J. Mol. Biol. 299: 725-32 (2000). ³Naik et al., Nature Materials 1: 169-72 (2002). ⁴Naik et al., J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2: 1-6 (2002). ⁵Scembri et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 170: 363-71 (1999). ⁶Kiargaard et al., Appl. Env. Microbiol. 66: 10-14 (2000). ⁷Gaskin et al., Biotech. Lett. 22: 1211-16 (2000). ⁸Brown et al., Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. USA 89: 8651-55 (1992). ⁹Whaley et al., Nature 405: 665-68 (2000). ¹⁰Lee et al., Science 296: 892-95 (2002).

In addition, multifunctional peptides that form bimetallic nanostructures, see Slocik & Naik, Advanced Materials 18: 1988-92 (2006), are available for use in accordance with the present invention. Accordingly, the invention contemplates production of nanoparticle assemblies that comprise more than one metallic or semiconductor constituent, through the use of biomineralization peptides of differing specificity or biomineralization peptides that are multifunctional. Further in this vein, two separate biomineralization peptides could be coupled together by an organic moiety that serves to both assemble and crosslink the two peptides.

The above-mentioned aliphatic carbon tails likewise are illustrative of the pendant organic group that can be attached to the terminus of a biomineralization peptide, according to the present invention, thereby to effect assembly of supramolecular structures, exemplified below by micellar and tubular amphiphilic structures. Pursuant to the invention, any such supramolecular assembly can be employed as a template for the simultaneous nucleation and assembly of nanoparticles, as described above.

It also is feasible, pursuant to the invention, to control the spacing between nanoparticles that comprise an assembly, as described above, by adding a charged particle-stabilizing ligand during the assembly process. Such a ligand forces the constituent particles apart, in effect allowing one to adjust inter-particle spacing by adjusting the amount of citrate or other ligand that is added to the synthesis. Illustrative of the category of suitable stabilizing ligands in this context those chosen from the organic and inorganic molecules identified as “surface stabilizers” in the field of nanoparticulate pharmaceutical formulations. See published U.S. application 2008/0220075, the relevant contents of which (see paragraphs 0087-0107) are incorporated herein by reference. Among these are various polymers, low molecular-weight oligomers, natural products, and surfactants, including nonionic, cationic, zwitterionic, and ionic surfactants. Preferred stabilizing ligands are citrate, bis(p-sulphonatophenyl)phenylphosphine dihydrate dipotassium, and ascorbate.

In addition to variation of the biomineralization peptide, thereby to program the composition of the nanoparticle assembly, the present invention thus further encompasses the use of a variety of pendant organic groups or “self-associating moieties” that can be attached to the peptide, in order to control supramolecular assembly. The following are illustrative of this category of self-associating moieties:

-   (1) “Superhydrophobic” fluorous organic groups, such as     perfluorocarbon moieties, display intense hydrophobic and lipophobic     effects, which provide a powerful non-covalent, labile binding     interaction that can promote selective self-assembly in solvents of     varying polarity. See, e.g., Martin & Mecozzi, Supramolecular Chem.     17: 9-15 (2005). -   (2) Aromatic and π-conjugated organic groups are characterized by     self-assembly that is effected and controlled via π-stacking     interaction, caused by intermolecular overlapping of p-orbitals in     π-conjugated systems. See, e.g., Brunsveld et al., Proc. Nat'l Acad.     Sci. USA 99: 4977-82 (2002). A variation on this theme would be     organics with both π-stacking motifs (e.g., large aromatic ring     systems) and aliphatic portions. -   (3) Amphiphilic organic molecules have both hydrophilic and     hydrophobic portions, which foster interactions that promote     self-assembly. See, e.g., Yamamoto et al., Science 314: 1761 (2006);     Percec et al., Nature 430: 764 (2004). -   (4) Organic molecules with metal-binding motifs, when attached to     biomineralization peptides, allow for the use of simple coordination     chemistry to direct the assembly of the peptides into predetermined     structures not otherwise accessible by using only organic groups.     See, e.g., Sever et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 43: 448 (2004); Sever     & Wilker, Tetrahedron 57: 6139 (2001). -   (5) Other peptides that assemble into beta-sheet structures, such as     a peptide with the amino acid sequence FKFEFKFE (SEQ ID NO: 30), see     Matsuura et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127: 10148 (2005), can be     attached to biomineralization peptides of the invention, in order to     take advantage of the secondary bioassembly afforded by the     beta-sheet peptide, thereby to organize the nucleation conjugates.     See, e.g., Dong et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 129: 12468 (2007). -   (6) Oligonucleotides can be attached to biomineralization peptides,     permitting one to program the assembly of the resultant peptide     conjugates by controlling the length and sequence of the     oligonucleotides moiety. For example, see Marchán et al., Eur. J.     Org. Chem. 2000, 2495; Stetsenko & Gait, J. Org. Chem. 65: 4900     (2000); Wang et al., Bioconjugate Chem. 16: 497 (2005). -   (7) Two or more biomineralization peptides, either the same or     different, can be crosslinked, using organic groups that have     multiple peptide-attachment sites. In such cases, the organic moiety     can serve not only to crosslink the peptides but also to effect     their assembly into supramolecular systems. This expediency allows     for incorporating two or more different biomineralization peptides     into the same material, yielding structures comprised of     nanoparticles of varying composition.

Chemistries are well-known for attaching such pendant organic groups to the N-termini of biomineralization peptides according to the invention. See Hermanson, Greg T., BIOCONJUGATE TECHNIQUES, Pierce Chemical Company (Rockford, Ill.). In general, the organic group should have one or more carboxylic acid functional groups, which can be derivatized with succinimide groups. Succinimide groups react selectively with primary amines, such as those found at the N-termini of peptides as described here, to produce an amide bond.

The present invention is further described by reference to the following examples, which are illustrative only.

Example 1 Fabrication of Discrete, Sub-50 nm Gold Nanoparticle Assemblies

Reagents and solvents were obtained from commercial sources and used without further purification. Reversed-phase HPLC was performed at ambient temperature with Agilent 1200 liquid chromatograph, equipped with diode array and multiple wavelength detectors using a Grace Vydac protein C4 column. MALDI-TOF mass spectra were obtained on a PE Applied Biosystem Voyager System 1180 spectrometer, with α-cyano-4-hydroxy cinnamic acid (CHCA) as matrix. TEM samples were prepared by pipetting one drop of solution onto a 3-mm-diameter copper grid coated with carbon film. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was conducted on a JEOL 200F instrument operated at 200 kV. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) was measured at 22° C. with a Brookhaven 90Plus Particle Size Analyzer.

For the preparation of the N-hydroxyl-succinimide esters, the related carboxylic acid and one equivalent N-hydroxysuccinimide were dissolved in dry DMF solution in an argon atmosphere. After addition of 1.1 equivalent of dicyclohexyl carbodiimide (DCC) at 0° C., the solution was stirred overnight at room temperature. The precipitate solid was filtered off, and the clear filtrated solution was then evaporated to dryness and used directly from next step reaction without further purification.

To prepare the conjugated peptide, peptide with sequence of AYSSGAPPMPPF (SEQ ID NO: 1) (1.26 mg, 1.03*10⁻⁶ mol), see Slocik et al. (2005), supra, was dissolved in 0.1 mL dry DMF. After addition of about three equivalents of related N-hydroxyl-succinimide ester and 1 μL Et3N under stirring, the solution was stirred at room temperature for a few hours. The pure conjugated peptide was obtained by running reversed-phase HPLC eluting with a linear gradient of CH₃CN containing 0.05% formic acid/water containing 0.1% formic acid (5/95 to 95/5 over 30 minutes; isolated yield: 92.28%)

The synthesis of the peptide-Au nanoparticle was carried out by mixing the conjugated peptide, HEPES buffer and aqueous chloroauric acid (HAuCl₄) solution, the formation of gold nanoparticles was indicated by the appearance of color of the above mixed solution, which can also be seen from their UV/Vis spectra. Confirmation of discrete nanoparticle cluster formation was confirmed by TEM.

To verify that the micelle was templating the formation of the gold nanoclusters, the inventors endeavored to perform the identical synthesis at 60° C. Such procedures resulted in the formation of discrete nanoparticles, which showed some degree of random aggregation. This result was expected, as the micelle should not be thermodynamically stable at such elevated temperatures.

Finally, the inventors also attempted to synthesize the gold nanoclusters by incubating the C12-peptide conjugate in pH 7.5 HEPES buffer with small additions of CH₃CN, an organic solvent expected to disrupt the formation of the micelle, discrete, irregularly-shaped nanoparticles formed, upon addition of HAuCl₄. No nanoclusters were observed.

The inventors thus exemplified their novel strategy for synthesizing pre-designed nanoclusters, around 44 nm in size, by using micelles constructed from amphiphilic organic-peptide conjugates. Exposing these constructs to gold salts results in the nucleation of gold nanoparticles on the surface of the micelle. This illustrates how the inventive strategy allows for the simultaneous nucleation and assembly of nanoparticles.

Example 2 Construction of Highly-Ordered Gold Nanoparticle Double-Helices

The inventors attached small organic molecules to the peptide mentioned in Example, AYSSGAPPMPPF (SEQ ID NO: 1) (hereafter “PEP_(Au)”), and then they investigated the assembly of the resultant peptide conjugates. PEP_(Au) was evolved and isolated, to have a high affinity for gold surfaces, via phage-display methodology as described, for example, by Slocik et al., Small 1: 1048-52 (2005). Given the hydrophilic nature of PEP_(Au), attaching an aliphatic carbon tail to its N-terminus was expected to promote its assembly into various multi-dimensional supramolecular assemblies, such as a 1-D peptide amphiphile structure.

As a first step in this direction, the inventors coupled succinimide-activated dodecanoic acid to the N-terminus of PEP_(Au) to generate [C₁₁H₂₃CO]-PEP_(Au) (C₁₂-PEP_(Au)). The latter was completely dissolved in 0.1 M HEPES buffer, which allowed for both C₁₂-PEP_(Au) self-assembly and gold nanoparticle nucleation. The structure of the resultant peptide-amphiphile assembly was examined by means of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and tapping-mode atomic force microscopy (AFM). TEM images (FIG. 2a ) revealed the presence of uniform individual fibers with micrometer lengths (>4 μm) and narrow (6.1±0.6 nm) widths. Tapping-mode AFM showed that each fiber adopted a twisted-ribbon morphology and that the ribbons appeared to twist in a left-handed direction (FIG. 2b ). The pitch of the twisted-nanoribbon was consistently measured to be 84.1±4.2 nm (FIG. 2c ).

Spectroscopic studies were performed to clarify the structure of the helical fibers. Specifically, the inventors examined the fibers via circular dichroism spectroscopy, and they observed a peak around 227 nm, which could correspond to the signal produced by β-sheet structures. To probe whether β-sheet formation occurs, the assembled species were analyzed using fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The peak at 3275 cm⁻¹ corresponded to the stretching frequency of hydrogen-bonded N—H groups. The amide I band (1626 cm⁻¹) was consistent with β-sheet conformations, and the C—H vibration bands at 2918 cm⁻¹ and 2850 cm⁻¹ indicate ordered packing of the aliphatic chains.

With these spectroscopic and microscopy data, the inventors arrived at a working model for the resultant structure of the nanoribbon assembly (FIG. 2e ). The width of the nanoribbon is spanned by two C₁₂-PEP_(Au) units that interact through their aliphatic tails. Organization of the C₁₂-PEP_(Au) units along the longitudinal axis of the nanoribbon is driven by the formation of parallel β-sheets and favorable hydrophobic interactions between the aliphatic tails. The first four amino acids (AYSS (SEQ ID NO: 31)) have a propensity to form β-sheets, whereas proline residues do not. See Mino et al., Nature 367: 660-63 (1994). Accordingly, these amino acids (AYSS (SEQ ID NO: 31)) were understood to participate in β-sheet assembly and also to impart the left-handed helical twist to the nanoribbon.

The formation of nanoribbons can be attributed to the fact that the outer two-thirds of the peptide sequence is relatively sterically bulky, due to the presence of two proline-proline dimers and one phenylalanine. The steric bulk causes the C₁₂-PEP_(Au) units to assemble into nanoribbon structures rather than condensed tubular micelles, while at the same time PEP_(Au) subunits effectively shield the hydrophobic core of the nanoribbon.

The inventors sought to determine whether this process of peptide self-assembly and the process of PEP_(Au) biomineralization could be coupled into a single, unified process, facilitating the design and construction of double-helical gold nanoparticle superstructures. To this end, solutions of chloroauric acid (HAuCl₄) were added to clear HEPES buffer solutions containing C₁₂-PEP_(Au), which were carefully filtered to remove any assembled structures. Immediately after the addition of HAuCl₄, TEM samples were prepared and their examination revealed that the C₁₂-PEP_(Au) fibers formed even in the presence of the gold salt.

When the solutions were allowed to stand for ˜30 minutes, a small amount of precipitate formed. TEM studies of the precipitate indicated formation of double-helical assemblies comprising uniform discrete spherical gold nanoparticles (FIG. 3a-e ).

A better understanding of the structure of the nanoparticle assemblies was obtained from electron tomographic analysis. A series of tilted images from −70° to +70° with 1° tilt intervals were collected. These tilted projections were aligned and combined computationally to reconstruct a three-dimensional electron density map (tomogram).

As illustrated in the tomographic slices (FIG. 4a ) and in a 3-D surface rendering of the reconstructed density map (FIG. 4b ), the gold nanoparticle assemblies are left-handed double-helices, which comports with the observed chirality of the twisted C₁₂-PEP_(Au) nanoribbons. The measured maximum inner-distance between the particles along the width of the double-helix is 6.0±0.8 nm, and the pitch of the double-helix is 83.2±4.4 nm. Both distances are consistent with the observed width and pitch of the twisted C₁₂-PEP_(Au) nanoribbons.

These observations indicate that the synthesis of the nanoparticles and the assembly of the nanoribbons were coupled and that the peptide-conjugates of the invention successfully controlled the formation of gold nanoparticle double helices (FIG. 4c ). The results of control experiments help verify this conclusion. That is, when identical syntheses were performed using unmodified PEP_(Au) instead of C₁₂-PEP_(Au), dispersed nanoparticles formed that were similar to those reported by Slocik et al. (2005), supra.

To assess the importance of the internal amino acids (AYSS (SEQ ID NO: 31)) for directing the assembly of the nanoribbons, see Paramonov et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128: 7291-98 (2006), the inventors attempted to assemble nanoribbons and to synthesize the gold nanoparticle double-helices, using an amphiphile constructed from the reverse peptide sequence (C₁₂-FPPMPPAGSSYA (SEQ ID NO: 32)). Nanoribbons did not form with this amphiphile, nor did gold nanoparticle double-helices; rather, random gold aggregates were the principle product. Finally, to determine whether the C₁₂-PEP_(Au) nanoribbons could template the assembly of pre-formed gold nanoparticles, the inventors added citrate-stabilized nanoparticles to HEPES solutions containing C₁₂-PEP_(Au) nanoribbons. In this case, no ordered particle assemblies were observed.

The formation of left-handed gold nanoparticle double-helices in a single preparative step underscores the utility and power of the inventive methodology. The gold nanoparticles comprising the double helices are monodisperse, with diameters of 8.2±1.0 nm (FIG. 3e ), which indicates a uniform growth process from initial seeding to termination. In addition, the double-helices are highly regular: there are approximately 22 nanoparticles per pitch distance, the edge-to-edge spacing between the nanoparticles is uniform (1.5±0.8 nm), and the length of individual helices extends into the micrometer range. Such structural uniformity is unique, and it will be important for many applications, especially those that derive from the plasmonic properties of the nanoparticles.

In addition, spatially complex nanoparticle superstructures are very rare that exhibit well-defined stereochemistry, order, and persistence over multiple length scales, and rational synthetic methodology that allows for their fabrication is equally scarce. Having achieved this with the present invention means that the targeting of various nanoparticle superstructures is feasible, pursuant to the invention, via variation of the pendant organic group and by tuning the inorganic composition of the assemblies via selection of particular peptides. Thus, the invention can be useful for designing and producing many other target nanoparticle superstructures, characterized by properties that depend both on the composition of the organic and inorganic components and on their arrangement with respect to one another within the assembled structure. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A nanostructure comprising: (a) a conjugate molecule comprising a biomineralization peptide attached chemically at its N-terminus to a self-associating moiety, wherein the self-associating moiety is selected from a linear aliphatic carbon chain and an aromatic organic group; and (b) a nanoparticle comprising a metal or semiconductor element; wherein the biomineralization peptide binds to the metal or semiconductor element of the nanoparticle.
 2. The nanostructure according to claim 1, wherein the self-associating moiety is a linear aliphatic carbon chain.
 3. The nanostructure according to claim 1, wherein the self-associating moiety comprises succinimide-activated dodecanoic acid.
 4. The nanostructure according to claim 1, wherein the biomineralization peptide comprises the amino acid sequence AYSSGAPPMPPF (SEQ ID NO: 1).
 5. The nanostructure according to claim 1, wherein the self-associating moiety is a linear aliphatic carbon chain.
 6. The nanostructure according to claim 1, wherein the self-associating moiety is an aromatic organic group.
 7. The nanostructure according to claim 1, wherein the biomineralization peptide exhibits an affinity for nanoparticles comprising gold, iron oxide, silica, silver, zinc sulfide, cadmium sulfide, or cobalt.
 8. The nanostructure according to claim 7, wherein the biomineralization peptide exhibits an affinity for nanoparticles comprising cobalt.
 9. The nanostructure according to claim 7, wherein the biomineralization peptide exhibits an affinity for nanoparticles comprising gold. 